Reward or punishment Essay

â€Å"The right to life and dignity are the most important of all human rights and this must be demonstrated by the state in everything that it does, including the way it punishes criminals.† – Justice Arthur Chaskalson. The death penalty is considered, â€Å"the legal† punishment for a criminal. Although the death penalty has been used for many years, the thought of it continues to bring shivers down the back of most of society. Even though there has been an abundant of debates whether it should be abolished or not, citizens do not really know the facts behind it. Most of the society assumes that the death penalty is less expensive than life in jail without parole. United States citizens believe that this punishment will eliminate any revenge thoughts and therefore increase public safety. Being a factor of death, it should not be taken as lightly as it has been. Although sentencing the death penalty may seem the proportional punishment to a brutal crime, it is n ot a good alternative, because the cost of execution hurts our economy, it lacks closure for victims, and it violates the U. S. Constitution. Most of society assumes that the death penalty is less expensive than to keep a criminal in jail for life. Little did they know that it actually costs the U.S. less for a criminal to live in prison than to be executed. According to Dellapiana author of â€Å"Should We Put the Death Penalty on the Chopping Block?† not only is there cost for pre-trials, trials and courts but there is â€Å"additional costs amounting to $4.2 Million per death penalty† (Dellapiana 1). It is high priced because â€Å"the consequences or error and procedural unfairness are magnified when life is in the balance; thus, courts have imposed astringent due process protections.† (Dellapiana 1) Being in really tough economic times, wasting all that money on the death penalty seems inappropriate. All that money wasted on murdering someone, could might as well be used somewhere else in a productive manner. Dieter believes and states â€Å"the death penalty in the U.S. is an enormously expensive and wasteful program with no clear benefits. All of the studies on the cost of capital punishment conclude it is much more expensive than asystem with life sentences as the maximum penalty.† (Dieter 2). The money accumulated to be used in the death penalty is desperately needed in other important programs. For example, â€Å"In Florida, the courts have lost 10% of their funding, with another cut expected, as home foreclosures accelerated. Philadelphia is leaving 200 pol ice positions unfilled. In New Hampshire, civil and criminal jury trials were halted for a month to save money; in one county, 77 criminal trials were delayed for up to six months.† (Dieter 12). Clearly showing the United States is greatly affected by the death penalty. By the absence of the money needed for jobs, it has been forced to cut jobs strongly needed to protect society. As it can be seen, all the money spent on the death penalty is crucially affecting the economy. The process of following through the death penalty is lengthy; an entire appeal process can take more than 15 years before executions take place and in some cases it never goes through. â€Å"Sentences or convictions can be reversed, defendants may die of natural causes or suicide, governors occasionally grant clemency, and entire statutes can be overturned by the courts.† (Dieter 28). Meaning, most of the sentences don’t result in an execution, which only consumed an exaggerated amount of money when the process is over. Not only is the appeal high priced, pre-trials and trials only add much more money to the high amount already accumulated. Instead of finding a more appropriate approach, so ciety spends millions of dollars into a system that doesn’t produce results. Although many citizens do believe the death penalty is effective, they also believe the price is worth it. â€Å"This is because life is invaluable; there is no amount of money or prison that could equal it† (Roberts –Cady 3). Taking away their freedom is a way of restraining their moral behavior in society. â€Å"Because the wrongdoers had unfairly gained an extra measure of freedom from moral restraint, the natural way to restore a fair balance is to reduce the protection he ordinarily would have gained through moral restraints on the conduct of others. By treating the wrongdoer in what is ordinarily a forbidden way, we strip away part of the protection that moral restraints on behavior would ordinarily have afforded him. Thus, we remove precisely the sort of advantages he has gained.† (Roberts- Cady 3). A punishment is supposed to make the criminal reflect on their wrongdoing and get them on the right path. But why give the criminal the easy way out. Although many citizens believe in the saying â€Å"an eye for an  eye†¦Ã¢â‚¬  the death penalty does not necessarily bring closure to the victims’ family. â€Å"Because of the extensive constitutional due process requirements in deat h penalty litigation, trials are lengthy, and appeals can go on for decades, for families of victims, there is no closure.†(Dellapiana 5). Life sentencing with no parole is a much faster process and ensures closure to the victims’ family. For most of the victims’ families, the death penalty is a â€Å"punishment that is justified because it is a reward [or an easy way out] for wrongdoing† (Roberts – Cady 2). Not only does it lack closure to the victims’ families but it isn’t morally acceptable. This is because â€Å"if life has unconditional, incomparable worth, then we cannot and should not compare the worth of one person’s life with that of another† (Roberts-Cady 4).Taking the life of the murderer will not be the same as taking the life of the victim. For example, taking the murder’s life by injection can’t be brutally equivalent to taking the life of the victim. Some citizens believe the death penalty as punishment does provide closure. Many families consider this as closure because the murder has been killed. But as Roberts –Cady states â€Å"Taking the murders life cannot be said to be even roughly equivalent to taking the life of the victim.à ¢â‚¬  (Roberts- Cady 4) If it is not equivalent why not let them suffer in prison. Although life is the biggest blessing one could ever have, many criminals prefer death rather than to get life sentenced. So why give them what they prefer? And, who are the judges to decide who deserves to live and who deserves to die? Although many citizens believe the death penalty is a logical punishment, it violates the United States Constitution. The death penalty goes against the Eight Amendment in which it states it â€Å"prohibits the use of cruel and unusual or excessive punishment.† Thus, this amendment protects the criminal from receiving a punishment that can be considered comparable to the pain caused to the victim. The death penalty easily violates this amendment because it is cruel and unusual punishment since the result is death. Not only does it violate the United States Constitution it also violates the Declaration of Independence which says â€Å"All men are created equal†. It also violates this because of the discrimination by the judges and courts. An example is in case DeLuna v. The State of Texas (1986). In this prejudiced case, Carlos DeLuna was an American Hispanic who was put to death even though he was innocent. DeLuna was convicted of murdering a convenience store clerk,  Lopez. Although all assumptions pointed towards DeLuna, he was innocent. DeLuna repeatedly stated his innocence and stated the real killer was Carlos Hernandez. The judge discriminated him for being Hispanic, neglected to listen to his statements, nonetheless he claim ed â€Å"calling Hernandez a â€Å"phantom† and â€Å"figment of DeLuna’s imagination.† After being wrongfully executed, a professor and five of his students opened the case causing questions to rise and evidence to be found. The re-opening of this case showed tampering evidence. Hernandez already had a criminal record for being a repeatedly violent offender and known for slashing women. As the case was ongoing, police tampered the evidence. For example, as the investigation was occurring â€Å"the police said they couldn’t find a â€Å"Carlos Hernandez† [with a criminal record] despite his long rap sheet.† There was also a bloody foot print outside the store which was never processed. The judge was influenced by his ethnicity and appearance. He looked like the criminal, therefore for the judge, he was the criminal. Nor the judge or the court gave DeLuna the opportunity to prove himself innocent. Many people don’t categorize the death penalty as cruel and usual punishment; therefore, it does not violate the Eight Amendment. According to the dictionary, cruelty means causing somebody to feel pain or suffer. The Eight Amendment does not specify if emotion is part of this law. Death penalty should not be used to punish our society. It has been clearly explained how the death penalty is ineffective. A serious impact will continue to be seen throughout the United States economy if the death penalty is not abolished. It would take years for victims’ families to find the peace needed for closure. Death penalty does not only violate the U.S., but it violates The Declaration of Independence as well. As stated, it is proven the death penalty is not a good punishment but an easy way out therefore â€Å"Our country will never gain peace if we are killing our own citizens.†

Identify the Cottonwoods - Trees in the Willow Family

Identify the Cottonwoods - Trees in the Willow Family The common cottonwoods are three species of poplars in the section Aegiros of the genus Populus, native to North America, Europe, and western Asia. They are very similar to and in the same genus as other true poplars and aspens. They also tend to rustle and chitter in a breeze. The Eastern Cottonwood, Populus deltoides, is of the largest North American hardwood trees, although the wood is rather soft. It is a riparian zone tree. It occurs throughout the eastern United States and just into southern Canada. The Black Cottonwood,  Populus balsamifera, grows mostly west of the Rocky Mountains and is the largest Western cottonwood. It is also called Western balsam poplar and California poplar and the leaf has fine teeth, unlike the other cottonwoods. The Fremont Cottonwood, Populus fremontii occurs in California east to Utah and Arizona and south into northwest Mexico; it is similar to Eastern Cottonwood, differing mainly in the leaves having fewer, larger serrations on the leaf  edge  and small differences in the flower and seed pod structure. Quick  Identification Using Leaves, Bark and Flowers Leaves: alternate, triangular, coarsely curved teeth, leafstalks flattened.Bark: yellowish green and smooth on young trees but deeply furrowed in maturity.Flowers: catkins, male-female on separate trees. Quick Winter Identification Using Bark and Location These most common cottonwoods become very large trees (up to 165 feet) and usually occupy wet riparian  areas in the East or seasonally dry creek beds in the West. Mature trees have bark that is thick, grayish-brown, and deeply furrowed with scaly ridges. Young bark is smooth and thin.

Free international trade Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Free international trade - Essay Example Free international trade has led to maintenance of peace and stability, integration of the global financial systems and growth in the per capita consumption in the national economies (Feenstra, 2004). Free international trade benefits the countries through increased innovation and competition that leads to the reduction in the costs of production and market prices for the products. In this case, the open market practices put pressure on firms to implement innovative manufacturing technologies in order to compete effectively with their foreign counterparts in the same markets (Frederking, 2010). Secondly, free international trade generates more economic growth through encouraging risk-taking by companies and more investments. In this case, American free trade exports support more than 15,000 jobs. In addition, free international trade disseminates capitalist ideals and democratic values since the countries engaged in free trade agreements have a duty to comply with the pre-agreed econ omic rules and standards such as the free movement of labor, protection of intellectual property and cross-border movement of foreign direct investments (Feenstra, 2004). ... The agreement contains provisions that guarantee non-discrimination in the trade of digital products and regulatory efficiency in order to foster increased trade volumes between the two countries. Another milestone in deepening free international trade is the Peru-United States trade promotion agreement of 2007 that seeks to promote private investments between the two countries and eliminate obstacles to free trade. The trade agreement seeks to attract foreign investments, enhance the trade competitiveness and generate more employment (Berg and Lewer, 2007). The USA-South Korea free trade agreement of 2011 encourages increased trade between the two countries through ensuring more than $ 1 billion of US farm exports to South Korea are exempted from customs duties and reducing the previous quotas. South Korea will cut the tariffs on US beef imports and taxes based on engine displacement in order to encourage US car manufacturers to export their cars to the market. at the same time, the US government is expected to provide economic aid to South Korean farmers and support South Korea in the privatization of the public companies in order to increase trade competitiveness between the two countries. According to Bogota, Colombia government waited for long for the free trade agreement with United States and the deal will increase Columbia’s long-term economic growth and increase the exports from $ 17 billion to $ 50 billion within a period of five years (Bogota, 5). In addition, the US government is weighing trade benefits that will result from several proposed free trade agreements with countries such as transatlantic Free trade area with European Union and New Zealand-US trade agreements. In

Europa. Basic Information on the European Union Essay

Europa. Basic Information on the European Union - Essay Example The European Union was formed after the Second World War to promote cooperation on economic grounds amongst the European countries. The idea was that the nations which do business with one another are reliant on each other economically and will consequently avoid clashes and disagreement amongst themselves. In the year 1951, six European nations viz. Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Italy and Netherlands signed an agreement to unite their industries in the coal and steel sector so that there would not be any difference between them in future. After six years, they made a deal of ‘Treaty of Rome’ by forming the European Economic Community (EEC) with the idea of forming a common single market, the community later came to be recognized as the European Union. The elementary objective of the Treaty of Rome was the formation of a single economic region in Europe based on a universal market. The common market is a phase in the process of international integration which targets to remove all obstructions to intra market trade and plans to merge all the national markets to form a single market which would lead to conditions prevalent in an internal market. The formation of such a market needs liberalisation of business among the Union members and also makes free mobility of certain production factors such as labour, services and necessary capital. It further requires free establishment of business organisations and people in all the regions of the member nations for the purpose of exercising their business and professional activities. (Europa, n.d.). After the Treaty of Rome, the EEC detached all tariffs and duties on the goods which were traded within its territory. However, there were many differences in the requirements of packaging and saf ety measures followed by each Member nation, these disparities in business practices led to problems in selling the same products all over the European Region. The inability to reach the undisputed agreements required to change the scenario prevented the development of the single European market. In the early 1980s, the national economies of the European nations were disjointed, inflexible and very uncompetitive. European Union adopted ‘The Single European Act’ in 1986 under which certain important unanimous decisions could be taken to construct a boundary-less single market by the end of 1992. During this period, the EU formed one common regulation system for all its members and started following the code of joint recognition. In the early years of its formation, the European Union had crossed two major obstacles to the economic incorporation of Europe. They were the formation of custom union where the custom duties were removed, and the development of a general agricu ltural plan which was required for the liberal movement of agricultural products between the members of the European Union

A review and literary assessment of the short story Everyday Use by Research Paper

A review and literary assessment of the short story Everyday Use by Alice Walker - Research Paper Example They ended up shining a light for generations of readers. The work that this paper aims to review is one of those papers that were done by one of today’s greatest writers and tells a very intriguing and provocative story in a sublet way. IT presents certain details when needed but also leaves out things in order to provoke the mind to stir and create a mental picture of the scene that the story projects. It gives snippets of information that is just enough to let the readers imagination wonder. The story’s characters are also presented in such a way that the details of their personality and persona are revealed through their conversations and back stories without losing focus of the actual story’s timeline. The story in its self is also very engaging and the reader is glued to the next word of the next phrase of the next word while looking to have it unfold before the reader’s very eyes. The reader is left to anticipate and watch as the story unfolds. For this story in particular, the issues that are played out are done in a very classy manner and that the characters in themselves are able to tell a story for and of themselves while still able to have participation to the story as a whole. This paper aims to review and analyze Alice Walker’s story. Essentially, the main time line of the story occurs in less than a day, however it does go into several flashbacks. The story is told by a mother who initially describes her life, her former relationship with one daughter and her current relationship with another daughter. You don’t get a sense of who is speaking, or what the story is about until you are a paragraph or two into the story. This maybe considered a technique to keep the reader interested in toe story as a whole. Through the initial part of the story, you get a glimpse of what life was like at the time the story was set. You also get a look at how the mother’s children view her as well as a visualization o f how they transitioned to the current life they live through the mention of a fire in their former home. The initial part of the story also sets the pace and the mood for the rest of the story since the mood was a bit toned down but slowly exposes details as the story goes on. There was not really any big revelations regarding detail in the story until the later parts when her daughter cam to visit and exposed that she changed her name. The story depicts a much simpler time and place where the main character decides on many occasions not to trouble herself with too many details and not to fuss over trivial things. It also shows a kind of family bond that may be different from what most people know, but it is strong. Most of the story telling and narrating is one sided but the main character does provide us insight on the other characters of the story like her daughters, what they say to her, what they may think of her, as well as their descriptions and reactions to certain things. If reading in the sense of looking at the activities described in the story, it may seem like a rather mundane or shallow tale but if you dive deep into what the story is telling you, or what it is describing, or when it is set or even who the characters are, then you will be surprised to find a gold mine of information and rich depth. Although the story does not explicitly say this, the story is also about issues regarding African-Americans at the time they were trying to identify themselves. Although there were no directly mentioned

Film Assignment Essay Example for Free

Film Assignment Essay For this assignment, I chose the 1996 movie â€Å"A Time to Kill† is applying Carl Roger’s Model of Argument. The film is based on the novel of the same title by John Grisham that tells the story of finding justice amidst the racial bigotry of the South. It is the story about a black man, Carl Lee Hailey, who killed the men who raped and mauled his 10-year old daughter Tonya and is looking at a death sentence should he be found guilty of murder in court in a town where racial prejudice continues to abound. It is through the efforts of his defense lawyer, Jake Brigance that Carl Lee was acquitted and released (McConnnaghuey and Jackson 1996). At first glance, a debate is very likely to ensue. Some would say Carl Lee is guilty because he broke the law by murdering the suspects. The latter had been arrested and should have been given their day in court and let the law take its course. They believe that revenge was Carl Lee’s motive for taking matters in his own hands and that the death penalty is appropriate because of what he did, consistent to the adage, â€Å"the punishment must fit the crime. † Legally, Carl Lee is indeed guilty and the jury appears to be leaning towards that decision. However, looking at it from the other side, there are others, as personified by Jake, who believe Carl Lee did the right thing though it was very drastic. While it may be true that Carl Lee was legally guilty, this does not immediately mean he is morally wrong. In the latter part of the film, Jake won the case because he was able to find common ground, not only with the jury, but also to the audience. He took their attention away from Carl Lee and his act and instead focused it somewhere else on the actual victim Tonya. Jake did this by taking everyone on a â€Å"journey† inside Carl Lee’s mind, putting themselves in his place, retracing his road to perdition on the day his daughter came to him battered and bleeding to the time he killed the suspects. He closed the â€Å"journey† by telling the jury to now â€Å"imagine she were white. † This is the common ground Jake successfully established. The â€Å"secret† behind it was Jake is able to make the jury shed off any racial bias they may have by getting them to empathize with Carl Lee. The result was instead of looking at a black man seeking redress for the attack on his daughter, but just a father who is merely looking out for his daughter. It can be inferred that everyone on the jury would have done the same thing if the victim had been their own child. They also know how biased the justice system is in town and that black people never get a fair trial but in this case, Jake succeeded in making them see it from a different perspective. It is certain that everyone knows justice is not always found in the courtroom, especially in this town and there are times when doing the right thing means breaking the law because the law is not perfect as it is administered by a racially prejudiced society. What was substituted here is a deeper sense of justice that is common to all, rooted in religious beliefs. In other words, people like Carl Lee are guided by their personal morals that are very fundamental where it becomes easy to discern right from wrong. All in all, the film shows a demonstration on how the Rogerian Model is applied as â€Å"common ground† was established with the audience by the performers in the film through the use of empathy to establish this common ground. Bibliography A Time to Kill. Directed by Joel Schumacher. Performed by Matthew McConnnaghuey and Samuel L. Jackson. 1996.

Reproductive Health Among Adolescent Girls Health And Social Care Essay

Reproductive Health Among Adolescent Girls Health And Social Care Essay Review of literature is a systemic search of a published work to gain information about a research topic (Polit and Hungler, 2011). Conducting a review of literature is challenging and an enlightening experience. The review of literature was based on extensive survey of books, journals, and international nursing indicates. A review of literature relevant to the study was under taken which helped the investigator to develop deep into the problem and gain information on what has been in the past. An extensive review of literature was done by the investigator to lay a broad foundation for the study. For the purpose of logical sequence the chapter was divided in two parts. 2.1 PART I: Reviews related to reproductive health among adolescent girls. 2.2 PART II: Reviews related to effectiveness of adolescent to adolescent approach on reproductive health. 2.1 PART I : Reviews related to reproductive health among adolescent girls. Mc Call-hosenfeld JS et al., (2012) conducted an experimental study in Pennsylvania; they investigated the impact of individual on womens are receipt of a comprehensive panel of preventive services in a region that includes both urban and rural communities. Outcome variables were a screening and vaccination index blood pressure , lipid panel, sexually transmitted infections or individual level variables includes predisposing factors, enabling and need based measures. The investigator found that overall use of preventive services, were low individual variability in womens receipt of counseling services is largely explained by psychological factors and seeing an gynecologist. . Fengy et al., (2012) conducted a cross sectional survey of 17,016 adolescent girls and young aged 15-24 yrs old in both rural and urban Asian cites, China, through interview and computer assisted self interview for sensitive questions. To identify the predictors perception of homosexuality. The 40% of adolescent and young adults who hold a positive view of homosexuality for both males and females. Preferred origin of movies, videos, self identified sexual orientation, sexual and reproductive health knowledge, family values, gender role and attitude towards premarital sex. The most common and important predictors for a respondents perception of homosexuality were his/her knowledge of sexual and reproductive health. Shelia G et al., (2012) conducted a experimental study regarding features of physical and sexual development of reproductive behavior among adolescent girls at Russia. In this assessment the adolescent reproductive behavior identification and the factors affecting was made in female adolescents age 14-19yr [randomly formed via continuous selection] information of the state of their health their attitudes towards child bearing and their risky habits have been evaluated. High frequency of menstrual irregularities, 24.7% delayed formation of the bone pelvis, 25.2% the prevalence of chronic external genital diseases were found. Iliyasuz et al., (2012) conducted a qualitative study regarding sexual and reproductive health communication between mothers and their adolescent daughters in North India Assam. The investigator employed structured interviews and groups to investigate reproductive health communication practices among 108 mothers and daughters transcript were analyzed using the grounded theory approach .A total of 136 mother reported discussing reproductive issues with their daughters. The majority of daughters acquire reproductive health education from their mothers; parents were more likely to discuss marriage, menstruation, premarital sex, STI infections and sex education need to be empowered with knowledge and skills to improve the scope and quality of home -based reproductive health education. Palke VD et al., (2011) conducted a study regarding impact of sex education on knowledge and attitude of adolescent school children in Bihar. Reproductive capability is now in earlier age, but the subject of adolescent sexuality in most societies, there is a wide spread ignorance about risks are unprotected sex problems among adolescent girls. Unfortunately need of sex education is not perceived and fulfilled in India especially in rural areas. The present study was conducted to assess the need and demonstrate the impact of sex education among adolescent school children, by analyzing pre and post intervention questionnaire and there was a significant increase in knowledge about sexuality , menstrual hygiene. Sexually transmitted disease, it has significant impact on knowledge of adolescent school children. Ezekwere et al., (2011) conducted a study regarding sex education, sex information, sex practices, among adolescent girls in Nigeria. A total 304 girls selected by multi-stage sampling technique studied primary and subsequent sources of sexuality information, mainly the by the media, peers, families and schools, found that mostly they were not involved in provision of early sexual initiation and un protected sex was common among them. The study highlights the need to create a awareness at earlier stage of adolescent period sexual education of adolescent girls through parents and teachers had to be initiated. Wong LP et al., (2011) conducted a large cross sectional study regarding attitude towards dysmenorrheal impact and treatment seeking, among 1,295 adolescent girls (13-19 yrs) from 16 public secondary schools in rural districts of Malaysia. Dysmenorrhea was reported in 76.0% of the participants multivariate analysis shows that being in upper secondary levels was the strongest predictor for poor concentration, absenteeism and poor school grade due to dysmenorrheal is a normal cycle and only 14.8% sought medical treatment , education should be extended to parents and school peer leaders to address the reproductive health needs of adolescents. Lazarus JV et al., (2011) conducted a quasi experimental study regarding reproductive health awareness programme to assess the knowledge, attitude and behavior. Reproductive health data was collected from the students aged (11 16 yrs) by using a picture and group discussion. In total 313 questionnaire has distributed, and the mean score in the pretest knowledge was 5.9 and 6.8 in post test score was p (0.003), which increased significantly t=4.5, p=0.000. The attitude mean score in pre test was 4.3 in post test was 6.8 which shows the increased significant. The mean behavior pretest score which showed a significant p =0.019. Hence the intervention significantly improved the adolescent reproductive health knowledge attitude. BiscoFreudenthal J et al., (2011) conducted a study regarding creating community awareness of reproductive tract infections including STD infections. The aim of this study was thus to explore people perception treatment seeking behavior and understanding of information about RTI/STD. Qualitative contact analysis was employed for the data analysis. The major findings was that the most common treatment seeking behavior was taking self medication. Shyness of genital examination, negative attitudes towards dirty diseases. The main media sources of RTI/STI information were radio, TV and other access to health information was more difficult. Health education messages should be more accessible in rural areas. Van Rossem et al., (2011) conducted the survey to evaluate the reach and impact of social marketing and reproductive health communication campaigns (selected radio and television programs) regarding family planning and HIV/AIDS in Zambia. The results evidenced that the reproductive health and social marketing Campaigns in Zambia reached a large portion of the population and had a significant impact. The results suggested that future reproductive health communication campaigns that invest in radio programming may be more effective than those investing in television programming and future campaigns should seek to increase their impact among women. Portillo et al., (2011) conducted a cross sectional study regarding sexual and reproductive health among adolescent girls at High school in Spanish. The study focused to determine the extent of information about preventing sexually transmitted diseases, knowledge and use of contraceptive methods. It includes 641 students who agreed to complete the questionnaire by school. 84.5% students know at least one contraceptive method 84%, It is necessary to establish or strengthen information programme on sexual health for adolescent. Fehr KR et al., (2011) conducted a study to assess the knowledge and use of Folic acid in women of reproductive age Folic acid reduces the risk of neural tube defects 50%, women of reproductive age group should be aware of the importance of the folic acid and neural tube defects. They used terms such as Folic acid knowledge and Folic acid awareness to search articles published, women were although knowledge levels were associated with education and health care professionals magazines and news papers, radio, TV, as common sources of information, and this knowledge will allow them to make informed decisions about Folic acid among women. Mc Call JS et al., (2011) conducted a study regarding preventive counseling among reproductive aged women. Preventive health intervention often occur less frequently among rural women compared to urban is an important feature of comprehensive preventive health care provisions .Data were collected by telephone survey during 2004-2005 participants aged 18-45 yrs in the central Pennsylvanias. The study assessed the independent contribution of counseling for smoking ,alcohol, drug use, birth control ,nutrition, physical activity. Most women do not receive recommended preventive counseling, while rural women are less likely than urban women to receive counseling educating rural health care providers about the need for preventive counseling. Jousha et al., (2011) narrated on condom negotiation and experience among sexually active young women in New south wales, Austraila by using feminist narrative approach. Ten womens stories were collected via online interviews. The findings revealed that none of the women initiated or negotiated use of the male condom promotion relies on the r4coginition of the gender factors that impede young womens condom negotiation and use. Strategies that overcome gender dynamics and empower women to negotiate condom use have the ability to promote condom use among this group. Lawan et al., (2010) conducted a study regarding menstruation and menstrual hygiene among adolescent girls in Gujarat .This study examined the knowledge and practices of adolescent school in around menstruation and menstrual hygiene .Data was collected quantitatively and analyzed using pre experimental study, the study findings showed that majority had fair knowledge of menstruation, although deficient in specific knowledge areas, most of them used sanitary pads as absorbent during their last menses, changed menstrual dressings about 1-5 times per day and improving access of the adolescent to reproductive health needs. Sivagami, et al., (2010) conducted a qualitative study on community perception and treatment seeking behaviour regarding reproductive tract infections including sexually transmitted infections in Lao by using fourteen focus group discussion and 20 in depth interviews. It held among 76 women and 56 men. The major finding was that both male and female participants had a variety of misconceptions about the causes and symptoms of RTI/STIs and their cure and a reluctance to seek health care. The main reasons for not going to health facilities were fear of social discrimination or shyness. They suggested strengthening health education and promotion through interventions at the community level to improve the quality of RTI/STI management. Minto et al., (2010) reviewed the efficacy of HIV/STI behavioral intervention and identified factors associated with intervention efficacy for American African females in the United states by using meta- analysis from 37 relevant studies. The results showed that behavioral intervention had a significant impact on reduction in HIV/STI risk sex behavioral. They concluded as behavioral interventions were efficacious in preventing HIV and STIs among African American females. They suggested that conducting more research to examine the potential contribution of prevention strategies that attend to community level and to improve communication between RTI/STI patients and clinicians. Thakor HG et al., (2010) conducted a STIs prevalence study on knowledge and practices related to STIs and HIV among 125 sex workers in an urban area of Gujarat, India. 85-90% were aware about various symptoms / diseases transmitted by unsafe sexual practice in male and female. 23.4% took treatment from health worker for such problems; 87.9% were aware that consistent use of condom could protect them from HIV infections and 2.6% reported for non treatment of STD.58% were not aware about behavoural changes needed to reduce the risk. 2.2 PART II: Review related to effectiveness of adolescent to adolescent approach on reproductive health. Denison JA et al.,(2012) conducted a quasi experimental study on peer education make a difference an evaluation of HIV prevention in youth-led model trained volunteer peer educators age (18-25 yrs) in school, to teach HIV prevention and Reproductive health. This evaluation programme effects on students HIV knowledge, attitude and behaviors of adolescent girls by using a non randomized quasi experimental design among 2133 students had significantly higher levels of knowledge regarding HIV p 0kanlawon FA et al., (2011) conducted a study to assess the effectiveness of peer education in a secondary school regarding reproductive health among adolescent girls in Karnataka. The study employed pre and post test intervention quasi experimental design, The experimental group was the adolescence girls to give peer education programme for 6 months pre and post test data in the experimental and control groups were compared and analyzed. The knowledge of reproductive health issues was p Drummond P et al., (2011) conducted a study by using peer education to increase the sexual health knowledge among West African refugees in Western Australia. Ten bilingual west African peer educators conducted a 3 hours workshop on sexual health for small groups of western African refugees (n = 58) who recently settled in Perth , western Australia .There were significant increases in the participants knowledge on sexually transmitted infections and HIV , their spread and the measures to protect against infection. They Concluded that the peer education approach was successful in assisting new and emerging community to work effectively on sexual health topics generally considered as taboos or too sensitive to discuss. Stephenson. J et al., (2010) assessed the effectiveness of school-based peer-led sex education among 9,000 pupils aged 13-14 years at England. Schools were randomized to either peer-led sex education (intervention) or to continue their usual teacher-led sex education (control). Peer educators, aged 16-17 years, were trained to deliver three 1-hour classroom sessions of sex education to 13- to 14 years old pupils from the same schools. The study findings concluded that compared with conventional school sex education at age 13-14 years, this form of peer-led sex education was very effective associated with change in teenage STDs, it merits consideration within broader teenage STDs prevention strategies.